Autobiographical Incident Free Essays

My Father and mom were there (counting me). I was in Trinidad and I was going to America just because. I was around the age of 2 or 3 years of age when I was moving. We will compose a custom exposition test on Self-portraying Incident or then again any comparative subject just for you Request Now My mom and father were likewise youthful at that point. I woke up with my mom letting me know it’s time to get going. 4:00 am the clock said. I didn’t need to leave however I had no way out. I hurried to the restroom, cleaned up, brushed my teeth, and ate. I went outside with my mom and saw a man and my dad placing his stuff and mine in the taxi trunk. My mom kissed and embraced me for quite a while. At that point, I bounced in the taxi with tears waving farewell to my mom. The occasion influenced my life since it was a dismal day for my mom. I was moving from Trinidad to New York for quite a while. She (my mom) couldn’t accompany me and my dad on the grounds that my grandma didn’t consent to release my mom with us. My mom was telling my dad the amount she cherished him furthermore, to deal with my youngster (Shawna, me). My dad guaranteed her that when he gets his green card she could descend and get hers. At that point my mom revealed to me she cherished me and afterward we needed to leave. I cried furthermore, disclosed to her farewell and she said bye to me and my dad and advised us to be cautious. My mom was embracing me. Her warm embrace made me feel good inside saying its alright. I smelled the prepares in the stove that my nearby neighbor makes in the first part of the day she begin crying like I never observed her cry. I despite everything had that air pocket gum taste that I brush my teeth with in my mouth. Waving farewell to my mom Tears consumed my eyes as the taxi drove off. The most effective method to refer to Autobiographical Incident, Papers

Core Values in International Relations and Their Application in the Essay

Fundamental beliefs in International Relations and Their Application in the Kigndom of Saudi Arabia - Essay Example The analyst expresses that universal relations can be alluded to the field of open arrangement and institute, which for this situation, can be standardizing or positive. This field makes an investigation and plan of various international strategies for different nations. Being a political action, the training follows its birthplace back to the hours of Thucydides, a Greek student of history (460-395 BC). Toward the start go of the twentieth century, universal relations turned into a significant and discrete scholastic part in political theory. By and large, understand that global relations have become a significant interdisciplinary field that individuals go to concentrate in schools, colleges and different establishments of higher learning. Aside from the field of political theory, worldwide relations get its scholarly materials from different fields like history, innovation, reasoning, topography and global law among numerous others. The specific extent of the field of global relat ions sees such issues as environmental supportability, atomic multiplication, patriotism, universal security, human rights among other significant fields. Global relations follows its history from numerous hundreds of years back; for example, Buzan and Little Richard are accepted to have considered the communications in a large number of the antiquated city-conditions of Sumeria as a type of completely fledged and operational worldwide relations. These associations are accepted to have begun occurring around 3500 BC. At the point when dependent on sovereign expresses, the history with respect to universal relations can be followed back to the hour of Westphalia in 1648. During this time, it is accepted that the advancement of global relations was a significant venturing stone towards the improvement of the present state frameworks. Prior to this specific turn of events, associations in political experts in the European medieval period were relied upon a dubiously evolved various lev eled strict requests.

How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles

How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles EP 55: How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles EP 55: How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles How do you distinguish valid research from bad science?” In the clickbait era, its more important than ever to be able to distinguish fact from fiction. Thanks to the internet, we have more access to research than ever before. Of course, the saying is “just Google it,” but not everything you find in a Google search is true. In academia, it is important to make sure that the articles you are accessing are not ‘bad’ science. Join Cath Anne on Episode 55 of the Homework Help Show, to learn how to read beyond the headline and how to spot bad science for yourself. Looking for study tips, help with essay writing, or advice on how to be a better student? Welcome to The Homework Help Show, a weekly show where we teach, assist, and offer valuable insights for student life. From study hacks to writing tips, discussions about student mental health to step-by-step guides on academic writing and how to write a resume, weve got you covered. Want your questions answered? Write them below or join the conversation on social media using the hashtag #askHHG TRANSCRIPT: Cath Anne: [00:00:00] Hi there and welcome back to our channel. My name is Cath Anne and this is episode 55 of The Homework Help Show hosted by Homework Help Global. Here on this show we provide you with valuable content for your academic and student life. Lets jump in. Cath Anne: [00:00:17] OK guys we are constantly on the Internet these days the Internet is where you gain access to information and maybe even research articles. However because there is so much information out there you really have to be careful about where you get your information and whether it is valid research. It is important to recognize whether the research you are actually accessing or the research articles you are using are not bad science. Of course we all know the saying just Google it. However this does not always stand up in the academic world. Today on the show we hope to provide you with some tips so that you can recognize when there is bad science in a research article, and this way you can avoid incorporating these types of articles into your research essay. Next week we will look into how to use google to enhance your research and provide you with some valid research articles to incorporate into your academic essays. However this week lets focus on bad science and how to avoid those kinds of research articles. Cath Anne: [00:01:37] First Id like to note that many of these tips came from the blog article written by the Web site Big Think we will link the website and the attached PDF in the description box below so check that out if youre looking for a PDF to print off and put on your wall. OK now lets get into the tips. Cath Anne: [00:01:57] Number one when you look at a research article or when youre doing research. Make sure to be aware of exaggerated headlines or click bait. First check the title of the research article. In the age of clickbait or in other words the age where we want people to click on our information, there is a tendency to exaggerate headlines or titles to make people drawn to towards the article. There is also a tendency to exaggerate or sensationalize the information within the article in order to appeal to people and draw them into clicking on it. If the title is sensationalized or exaggerated this is a pretty clear indication that it is not valid research and that you can pass on it and find something more reputable. Cath Anne: [00:02:45] Number two, media misrepresentation. When you are doing your research you may come across media articles that discuss research. However the media also tends to exaggerate information or findings within a study. If youre hoping to use a research article and you find it in the media go back to the original article and that way you will get the most accurate information and youll be able to cite the research article directly. Cath Anne: [00:03:13] Number three conflicts of interest. Sometimes large companies or corporations hire scientists to conduct research for them in order to sell a product. Now this does not mean that the research is not valid. However you want to be aware that there could be a conflict of interest or it that results could be skewed simply because the scientist is being paid. Be aware of these types of conflicts when you are doing your research because this could skew the data and result in bad science. Cath Anne: [00:03:42] Number four, abstract language. Sometimes research reports will use abstract language or make speculations. For example a study may use words like may or could possibly stay alert and aware of these types of words. This may indicate that a study is only looking at a certain portion of the information and not providing the full picture. It also indicates that the research may not provide definite answers to a research question which could result in bad science and you may not want to use this in your research essay. [00:04:19] Number five, a small sample size. Now there are cases where studies will require a smaller sample size. How over the small sample size the more limited the research in a case where a study uses a small sample size but a larger sample size could have been possible. You may want to be wary. Youre also going to want to be aware of whether a study indicates that a small sample size it was a limitation in the research check for this information in the discussion section of the report or also in the limitation section. A valid researcher will make note of any limitations that come through in the research. Cath Anne: [00:05:02] Number six samples that do not represent the population valid research will select a population or a sample that is representative of the population as a whole. If the research does not select a representative population the research is then not reflect five of the population as a whole. Cath Anne: [00:05:25] Number seven, there is no control group. In order to contrast research findings with a baseline a study must have a control group. The term control group is referred to the group of people that is given a placebo or not given a treatment in a clinical study. In order for their results to be evaluated the treatment group must be contrasted with a control group. So when you are looking for a valid research study especially if it is a clinical study check to see whether they have indicated a control group or not. Cath Anne: [00:06:00] Number eight, a lack of a blind test in order to avoid skewing the results. People in the control group should not be aware that they are in the control group. This is called blind testing if there is no indication of blind testing in the essay or the research article you may want to be wary of the results. Look into the study a little bit more. Blind testing is not always ethical and not always feasible. So there may be some wiggle room in this area. Cath Anne: [00:06:30] Number nine, drawing conclusions based on limited data sometimes research studies will cherry pick information and draw conclusions based on that information alone. This means when it comes to the analysis or discussion portion of the research article The research articles will focus on specific results at law alone without looking at the bigger picture and all of the results. When only a few of the results are mentioned in order to prove a hypothesis this indicates faulty research. Cath Anne: [00:07:02] Number 10, results cannot be reproduced. In any case during a study results should always be able to be reproduced a study should be able to be reproduced within a different context. If the study cannot be replicated this indicates a case of bad science. Cath Anne: [00:07:20] Finally number 11, peer review. Valid research goes through a process called peer review in which it is reviewed by other scholars and professors in the field for validity and whether it can be reproduced in order to qualify for admission into a journal. A study must go through a peer review process. Keep in mind that even when an article is cited numerous times in the mainstream that does not make it necessarily reputable. Check the content of the article and determine whether it has been peer reviewed and this will be your best indication that it is valid research. [00:08:06] Well guys thats it for me this week. I hope that this was effective and helpful for you and I hope Ive given you a few tips around how to identify bad science and avoid it including those in your research. As always if you have any comments questions or anything to say junk into the comments section below. We always love to hear from you. You can also get us on social media. All of our info links enlisted in the description below and weve also included a link to see where you can access more information on how to identify. As. Always if you liked this video and found it helpful. Please give it a light. And. Subscribe to our channel so you dont miss out on any of our other activities. Thank you guys so much for joining me and I hope youll join us. Good luck on reading all your essays. Talk soon and take care. How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles EP 55: How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles EP 55: How to Identify Bad Science in Research Articles How do you distinguish valid research from bad science?” In the clickbait era, its more important than ever to be able to distinguish fact from fiction. Thanks to the internet, we have more access to research than ever before. Of course, the saying is “just Google it,” but not everything you find in a Google search is true. In academia, it is important to make sure that the articles you are accessing are not ‘bad’ science. Join Cath Anne on Episode 55 of the Homework Help Show, to learn how to read beyond the headline and how to spot bad science for yourself. Looking for study tips, help with essay writing, or advice on how to be a better student? Welcome to The Homework Help Show, a weekly show where we teach, assist, and offer valuable insights for student life. From study hacks to writing tips, discussions about student mental health to step-by-step guides on academic writing and how to write a resume, weve got you covered. Want your questions answered? Write them below or join the conversation on social media using the hashtag #askHHG TRANSCRIPT: Cath Anne: [00:00:00] Hi there and welcome back to our channel. My name is Cath Anne and this is episode 55 of The Homework Help Show hosted by Homework Help Global. Here on this show we provide you with valuable content for your academic and student life. Lets jump in. Cath Anne: [00:00:17] OK guys we are constantly on the Internet these days the Internet is where you gain access to information and maybe even research articles. However because there is so much information out there you really have to be careful about where you get your information and whether it is valid research. It is important to recognize whether the research you are actually accessing or the research articles you are using are not bad science. Of course we all know the saying just Google it. However this does not always stand up in the academic world. Today on the show we hope to provide you with some tips so that you can recognize when there is bad science in a research article, and this way you can avoid incorporating these types of articles into your research essay. Next week we will look into how to use google to enhance your research and provide you with some valid research articles to incorporate into your academic essays. However this week lets focus on bad science and how to avoid those kinds of research articles. Cath Anne: [00:01:37] First Id like to note that many of these tips came from the blog article written by the Web site Big Think we will link the website and the attached PDF in the description box below so check that out if youre looking for a PDF to print off and put on your wall. OK now lets get into the tips. Cath Anne: [00:01:57] Number one when you look at a research article or when youre doing research. Make sure to be aware of exaggerated headlines or click bait. First check the title of the research article. In the age of clickbait or in other words the age where we want people to click on our information, there is a tendency to exaggerate headlines or titles to make people drawn to towards the article. There is also a tendency to exaggerate or sensationalize the information within the article in order to appeal to people and draw them into clicking on it. If the title is sensationalized or exaggerated this is a pretty clear indication that it is not valid research and that you can pass on it and find something more reputable. Cath Anne: [00:02:45] Number two, media misrepresentation. When you are doing your research you may come across media articles that discuss research. However the media also tends to exaggerate information or findings within a study. If youre hoping to use a research article and you find it in the media go back to the original article and that way you will get the most accurate information and youll be able to cite the research article directly. Cath Anne: [00:03:13] Number three conflicts of interest. Sometimes large companies or corporations hire scientists to conduct research for them in order to sell a product. Now this does not mean that the research is not valid. However you want to be aware that there could be a conflict of interest or it that results could be skewed simply because the scientist is being paid. Be aware of these types of conflicts when you are doing your research because this could skew the data and result in bad science. Cath Anne: [00:03:42] Number four, abstract language. Sometimes research reports will use abstract language or make speculations. For example a study may use words like may or could possibly stay alert and aware of these types of words. This may indicate that a study is only looking at a certain portion of the information and not providing the full picture. It also indicates that the research may not provide definite answers to a research question which could result in bad science and you may not want to use this in your research essay. [00:04:19] Number five, a small sample size. Now there are cases where studies will require a smaller sample size. How over the small sample size the more limited the research in a case where a study uses a small sample size but a larger sample size could have been possible. You may want to be wary. Youre also going to want to be aware of whether a study indicates that a small sample size it was a limitation in the research check for this information in the discussion section of the report or also in the limitation section. A valid researcher will make note of any limitations that come through in the research. Cath Anne: [00:05:02] Number six samples that do not represent the population valid research will select a population or a sample that is representative of the population as a whole. If the research does not select a representative population the research is then not reflect five of the population as a whole. Cath Anne: [00:05:25] Number seven, there is no control group. In order to contrast research findings with a baseline a study must have a control group. The term control group is referred to the group of people that is given a placebo or not given a treatment in a clinical study. In order for their results to be evaluated the treatment group must be contrasted with a control group. So when you are looking for a valid research study especially if it is a clinical study check to see whether they have indicated a control group or not. Cath Anne: [00:06:00] Number eight, a lack of a blind test in order to avoid skewing the results. People in the control group should not be aware that they are in the control group. This is called blind testing if there is no indication of blind testing in the essay or the research article you may want to be wary of the results. Look into the study a little bit more. Blind testing is not always ethical and not always feasible. So there may be some wiggle room in this area. Cath Anne: [00:06:30] Number nine, drawing conclusions based on limited data sometimes research studies will cherry pick information and draw conclusions based on that information alone. This means when it comes to the analysis or discussion portion of the research article The research articles will focus on specific results at law alone without looking at the bigger picture and all of the results. When only a few of the results are mentioned in order to prove a hypothesis this indicates faulty research. Cath Anne: [00:07:02] Number 10, results cannot be reproduced. In any case during a study results should always be able to be reproduced a study should be able to be reproduced within a different context. If the study cannot be replicated this indicates a case of bad science. Cath Anne: [00:07:20] Finally number 11, peer review. Valid research goes through a process called peer review in which it is reviewed by other scholars and professors in the field for validity and whether it can be reproduced in order to qualify for admission into a journal. A study must go through a peer review process. Keep in mind that even when an article is cited numerous times in the mainstream that does not make it necessarily reputable. Check the content of the article and determine whether it has been peer reviewed and this will be your best indication that it is valid research. [00:08:06] Well guys thats it for me this week. I hope that this was effective and helpful for you and I hope Ive given you a few tips around how to identify bad science and avoid it including those in your research. As always if you have any comments questions or anything to say junk into the comments section below. We always love to hear from you. You can also get us on social media. All of our info links enlisted in the description below and weve also included a link to see where you can access more information on how to identify. As. Always if you liked this video and found it helpful. Please give it a light. And. Subscribe to our channel so you dont miss out on any of our other activities. Thank you guys so much for joining me and I hope youll join us. Good luck on reading all your essays. Talk soon and take care.

Oedipus The King By Sophocles - 848 Words

Oedipus the King, written by Sophocles, follows the tragic story of a king named Oedipus who goes from an all-powerful ruler to a hopeless blind peasant. Oedipus the King was written as a play and performed in front of an audience. Sophocles shows in Oedipus the King that one cannot escape the fate of the gods. Throughout the play Oedipus struggles to find a solution and change all the troubles in his life. The play observes the story of Oedipus who defies the gods and through the journey experiences hardships in tragic flaw, tragic fall and tragic realization. Tragic flaw would be considered the negative aspect which influences the character. Teiresias, who is a blind prophet warns Oedipus of his horrible fate and Oedipus tells him â€Å"Your life is one long night so that you cannot hurt me or any other who sees the light† (Sophocles 1747). In this exchange Oedipus believes that he is all powerful and nothing can hurt him which shows his arrogance. Oedipus’s arrogant behavior will end up costing him greatly as he continues through the story as if nothing can harm the king. Oedipus accuses Creon for his problems and Creon tells the citizens of Thebes what he believes, â€Å"Citizens, I have come because I heard deadly words spread about me, That the king accuses me. I cannot take that from him† (Sophocles 1751). Oedipus’s arrogance spreads deep into his psychological thinking as he continues to believe that he cannot make mistakes and blames others. Jocasta, Oedipus’s wifeShow MoreRelatedSophocles Oedipus The King884 Words   |  4 PagesKing of Thebes, owner of a family tree that identically resembles Medusa on a bad hair day, and the inspiration for a psychologically-riveting complex, Oedipus, tragic hero of Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, exposes troubling truths about the human condition and, acting as an exemplary precaution for the entirety of humanity, demonstrates how a self-destructive struggle between love, an ger, and fate, conveyed through an unorthodox love affair between mother and son (Who gets custody in a divorce?),Read MoreSophocles Oedipus The King1714 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"ideal tragedy† is the play â€Å"Oedipus the King† written by Sophocles. In this play, Sophocles utilizes the concept of tragedy as well the theory of the importance of scenes of recognition and reversal to create a setting, tone, and mood throughout the play. Oedipus, the mythical king of Thebes, goes through a horrendous tragedy which includes moments of recognition and reversal. These moments are key to the fame and appreciation for the play, â€Å"Oedipus the King†. Sophocles’ use of Aristotle’s conceptsRead MoreOedipus The King By Sophocles950 Words   |  4 PagesThe people throughout Oedipus’ life trues very hard to allow him to escape his fate of killing his father and then marrying his mother. In the epic poem Oedipus the King, Sophocles tells the stor y of the tragic downfall of Oedipus. Although many people see the role of free will that brought upon Oedipus’ doom, no matter what choices were made throughout his life, his ultimate fate would always return. The choices made at the beginning of Oedipus’ life set him up to fulfill his prophecy. His parentsRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King992 Words   |  4 PagesThroughout tragedies in Greek literature, the hero always has one tragic flaw. In Sophocles’ Oedipus the King, Oedipus’ main flaw is his overactive hubris, which in turn clouds his overall judgment. This is evident in the Chorus’ first ode to the city of Thebes as they try to ask the Gods for the banishment of the plague. Their answer does not come from a deity, but from Oedipus himself as he enters the palace and says, â€Å"You have prayed; and you prayers shall be answered with help and release ifRead MoreOedipus the King by Sophocles1393 Words   |  6 Pages Sophocles’ play, Oedipus the King, has risen many questions concerning the main character and whether or not he acts on free will or if his future is predestined by the gods. I am going to test the theory that although Oedipus believes he is acting on his own free will, he is in fact a victim of the gods. I will analyze several different sources that discuss fate and human agency in Oedipus the King and then proceed to build my original argument on the archaic debate. There has been a great dealRead MoreOedipus The King By Sophocles904 Words   |  4 Pages In Sophocles play â€Å"Oedipus the King† a deadly plague has descended upon the kingdom of Thebes, and because of this plague a dark and iniquitous secret begins to unravel itself only to reveal a web of events connecting Oedipus and others as the culprits behind all the havoc ensued. No one is the sole source responsible for the unfortunate events that befall Thebes, as well as the royal family; In fact, those who unknowingly paved the path of destruction were themselves trying to prevent it fromRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King Essay1960 Words   |  8 Pages This would have been excellent advice for the main character in Sophocles drama, Oedipus the King. However, the drama was written as a result of Sophocles life and the influence of the humanistic culture in which he lived. Throughout Sophocles life, he gained military knowledge as the son of a wealthy armor manufacturer and received an excellent Greek education with emphasis on Homeric poetry (textbook). Furthe rmore, Sophocles was very involved in politics and served as a treasurer, a generalRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King871 Words   |  4 PagesThe plays written by Sophocles, â€Å"Oedipus the King â€Å"and â€Å"Antigone† are bodies of work displayed the meaning of what Aristotle defined as a tragedy. â€Å"Oedipus the King† is a story of a king trying to avoid the fate of his life that has been prophesized before his birth. In â€Å"Antigone† is story of a girl who devoted to her family, and regardless of the orders made the king Creon. In these stories the archetypes and hamartia of Antigone and Oedipus play a major role in the story. In â€Å"Antigone† the characterRead MoreOedipus The King, By Sophocles1407 Words   |  6 PagesWhen we think about a tragic play or protagonist, most people would think Shakespeare for his common theme of his plays to end with a tragedy. In Oedipus the King, written by Sophocles, tells the tale of the protagonist Oedipus. Throughout the play, Oedipus searched for his past to discover the reason why his kingdom is plagued with wilting crops and illnesses. In the end, he becomes a tragic protagonist after discovering his past was related to the previous king’s death. While the search progressedRead MoreSophocles Oedipus The King2037 Words   |  9 PagesSophocles’s Oedipus the King features a chorus that sings several odes over the course of the play. In Sophocles’s play, the chorus is composed of old Theban men and represents the population of Thebes as a whole. The chorus recites a parodos, four stasima, and a brief exodus. Through the choral odes, So phocles reflects on the events and motifs of the play, including piety and faith in the Gods, the inevitability and the uncertainty of fate, and the dichotomy of right and wrong. After Sophocles establishes

Introduction. Cortisol Is A Steroid Hormone, Found In

Introduction: Cortisol is a steroid hormone, found in the glucocorticoids (GC) class of hormones. It controls many physiological processes, vital for the survival of humans. This includes â€Å"metabolism, immune response, cardiovascular activity, and brain function† (Chung et al. 2011). Over and above control functions, cortisol also helps regulate blood pressure and its use of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. There is a strong correlation between stressful situations and circulating cortisol levels. The body response to stressful physiological or psychological situations by increasing the amount of cortisol secreted. This secretion causes the breakdown of muscle protein, which leads to the release of amino acids into the bloodstream. These†¦show more content†¦We can respond and cope with physical and emotional stresses because GC exerts effects in the body to maintain homeostasis (Chung et al. 2011) â€Å"Despite the relatively large number of studies that evalu ated stress provoked changes in cortisol secretion, the influence of a great number of variables remains to be determined† (Michaud et al. 2008). A report, written by Matheson and Cole (as cited in Michaud et al. 2008) stated that threats to an individual’s group were related to the increase in cortisol levels, particularly among individuals who had the tendency to express higher levels of anger. This experiment involved the use an of ELISA kit which stands for Enzyme- Linked- ImmunoSorbent Assay. This is based on the principle of competitive binding. A mouse monoclonal antibody coats the microplate wells directed towards an antigenic site on the cortisol molecule. Endogenous cortisol of a patient sample competes with a cortisol-horseradish peroxidase conjugate for binding to the coated antibody. I hypothesize that the amount of cortisol produced by a human, increases during the start of the day as compared to the middle and end. I also hypothesize that the amount of cortisol produced increases when he/she is placed under stressful conditions. Thus, two experiments had to be conducted. The first, to examine the circadian periodicity of circulating cortisol to determineShow MoreRelatedProtein Steroid Management Of Patients With A Normal Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis Essay1638 Words   |  7 Pages Pituitary Surgery Perioperative Steroid Management in Patients with a Normal Hypothalamic Pituitary Axis INTRODUCTION Surgery on the pituitary gland and around the sellar region is of special interest to the neurosurgeon. The approach to the gland has evolved over the past 50 years and so has the role of steroids in the perioperative management of these patients. Being one of the organs that play a key role in the hormonal balance of an individual, the neurosurgeon should be particularly carefulRead MorePsychological And Sociological Factors Of Stress1558 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction Stress is defined as ‘any situation which tends to disturb the equilibrium between a living organism and its environment’1. Equilibrium is restored through biological actions such as hormone secretion which lead to physiological changes that prepare one for the fight or flight response. As a junior doctor, Mark is exposed every day to many stressors such as death, suffering and long hours. 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These migrations are physiologically mediated, occur at anticipated times within a fish’s life history, and involve twoRead MorePost Traumatic Stress Disorder : Neural Correlates And Biomarkers2368 Words   |  10 Pagesamygdala. The hippocampus has also been found to play a role as during the recall and encoding of negative stimuli, there is an amplified coupling of amygdala and hippocampus activation. When examining biomarkers, PTSD is associated with increased systemic inflammation (represented through inflammatory cytokines and reactive oxygen species), decreased serum BDNF and decreased cortisol. In pilot studies, the reversal of PTSD associated decreases in BDNF and cortisol has significantly alleviated PTSD symptomsRead MoreThe Hypothalamus : Human Body s Internal Balance System1824 Words   |  8 Pages The Hypothalamus Rocky Martinez Professor Linderman Psychology 101 29 April 2015 Introduction The part of the brain that caught my attention that made me want to learn more was the Hypothalamus. The Hypothalamus is an almond shaped part of the brain that is quite intriguing as it has many different types of jobs that help us function in our everyday life. Do not let the size of the Hypothalamus fool you as it plays a huge part in our body’s internal balance system. In this paperRead MoreINTRODUCTION According to Innerbody.com, the endocrine system is composed for the glands and the1800 Words   |  8 PagesINTRODUCTION According to Innerbody.com, the endocrine system is composed for the glands and the hormones. These two main elements are closely related to the nervous system because it is the nervous system the one that stimulates the glands to produce hormones. The glands main function is to regulate the organs in the body. Body’s homeostasis is the term we use to explain how glands and hormones create an inner stability in organs to resist the outside environment (opencurriculum.org 2013). Hypothalamus

Moving to America Free Essays

MOVING TO AMERICA Do you know moving could be a very traumatic and scary experience for a child? When my mom decided to leave Trinidad and Tobago to pursue her Master degree, I don’t think she realized the impact it would have on me, knowing that you are moving to a whole different country is a big pill to swallow at the age of 14 years old. Me and my mom was having dinner when she broke the news that we were moving to America I remembered that day like it was yesterday I felt like my heart had hit the floor I had mix emotions I was just numb I didn’t know if to be happy, sad or angry. After the news was broken to me everything that I loved flashed before my eyes my friends and my family. We will write a custom essay sample on Moving to America or any similar topic only for you Order Now I was in high school at the time of our planning to move so I knew I would have to make new friends which is very hard for me because am very shy and soft spoken. But I knew in my heart my mom was making the move for us to better herself and to provide a better life for me and my brother. Leaving my country where I grew up and where all my family and friends were really saddened me. Trinidad and Tobago is two islands that makes up one country I lived in Trinidad is the place I call home. It’s a beautiful island in the Caribbean its hot all year round and it only has two seasons the rainy season and the dry season. I absolutely enjoy the weather but at times the heat can be very scorching and unbearable, the beaches are amazing white sands blue waters I remember when my best friend and I would go to the beach on Sundays and spend the whole day. So the day before I left which was a Thursday, which meant I had school. My teacher gave a farewell speech telling the class I was leaving and today would be my last day my Best friend Adanna broke into to tears so did I was an emotional wreck because we have been friends since age 5 we did everything together. So when class was over we walk to the bus hugging each other and cherishing our last moments together and then she told me she have a present for me. When I opened it was a letter that consist 10 pages and a framed picture of me and her at age 8, I was so grateful that she gave that to me I told I would keep it close to my heart. At 14 years we jetted to Colorado the flight took about 8 hours to arrive. I arrived in Colorado my body was in shocked of how cold it was coming from a country that is warm it was snowing heavily. I was so excited because I have always dreamt of wanting to see snow and on the first day of my arrival to America I saw snow I just thought to myself how lucky am I, I just smiled to myself. So a taxi cab came to pick us up at the Denver International Airport my new home was located in Colorado Springs it was an hour and a half away. On our way to Colorado Springs I couldn’t see the landscape or anything because everywhere was covered in snow so I just laid back and enjoyed the ride. When we arrived at our new home I fell in love with our new townhouse home it was new, hardwood floors, a tall ceiling it was just marvelous. My first night in my new home, a new country and a new neighborhood felt pretty weird I felt so out of place like I didn’t belong. I woke up the next morning feeling pretty lonely the house was quiet it was just not what am use to because back home in Trinidad we were living in a house with my grandparents and my other family members like my cousins and aunts so the house was always noisy. My mom came in to my room to tell me to get ready we are going grocery shopping I was a little excited I must say just to be out. So we went to the grocery I was so amaze on how big it was and all the different selections of foods items there was to choose from. After grocery shopping, my mom stopped at her school Colorado Technical University to do some finishing for her registration to start to attend school for the Spring Semester. The following day I had to register for school because it was nearing close for the spring school term to start so we went to the North Middle School to sign me up. I so nervous when I enter the doors of North Middle School I was so overwhelmed and I hadn’t even started school as yet it was just to register me. So January 9th rolled around that was the beginning of school it was the most traumatic and scary experience ever so many thoughts were running through my mind would I make friends, would any of the students laugh at my accent when I speak. The diversity of the students at the school with all different culture backgrounds was a lot to take in but I was eager to learn about them. I went to my first class it was my Algebra class my teacher was Mr. Brice, seeing as it was the first day of school he suggested that we stand up and introduce ourselves to the class. Everyone stood up and introduce there selves and then it was my turn I started sweating bullets I was so nervous so I stand and these was my exact words â€Å"Hi am Ariane and am from Trinidad† one the classmate laughed at me I felt so hurt I wanted to cry right then and there but I had to hold my composer. When the bell rang for the class to be over there was this one girl her name was Desiree came up to me and told me my accent was cool and she liked it. We became great friends from then so my school experience wasn’t as bad as I thought. When I got home from my first day of school, I laid on my bed thought to myself today wasn’t a bad day at all I can get use to this. But then I started to think about back home and I felt so empty and lonely and I missed everything my family and best friend. After spending 7 years in Colorado, my mom completed her degree and got an incredible job opportunity she was ecstatic I was to, then she told me we had to talk every time she said we have to talk I knew there was some bad or disappointing news she was going to tell me so I took a deep breath and asked â€Å"What is it mom? † she replied and said â€Å"We will be moving to New Jersey† I screamed out in excitement my mom was shocked at my reaction and she had a puzzling look on her face. She asked me â€Å"Aren’t you sad you are leaving Colorado† because she knew how sad I was when we left Trinidad I quickly responded â€Å"No†. I was excited to leave Colorado although I did develop a friendship with Desiree, I wanted to be close to family and New Jersey was the place for me because I have lots and cousins and aunts there. Moving to a whole different country has made me into a stronger person and has broadened my horizon to different cultures, atmosphere and opportunities. It also allows me to see and experience life in a new and different way. My mom has taught me that once I put my mind to anything I can do it. Because she went to Colorado without knowing anybody there and we conquered it together. Test: â€Å"Study Guide Algebra† How to cite Moving to America, Essay examples

Macbeth Is the Most Evil Character in British Literature free essay sample

Macbeth states, False face must hide what the false heart doth know (1. 7. 83). What this means is that the false face, or a lie, must hide what an impure heart is going to do. Right then and there, Macbeth has convinced himself that if he can get away with committing treachery, he can justify doing it. This event is crystal clear evidence of Macbeth becoming more and more evil. Macbeth also seems to not care about the lives of others as the story goes on. He kills more people and calls for the death of more people. For example, in Act 3, Macbeth has Banquo and his sons killed almost in the snap of a finger. Anyone that can cold-bloodedly have several people killed via homicide is obviously evil at heart. This is why Macbeth is the most evil character in British literature, and is absolutely evil at heart. Another thing that Macbeth does that places him on the road to an evil future is to avoid people more and more. We will write a custom essay sample on Macbeth Is the Most Evil Character in British Literature or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page From the tragedys introduction to its climax, Macbeth relies less and less on his peers and companions. The text supports this theory in the beginning of the play. Macbeth is portrayed as very dependent on his wife, and in reference to the literature, Lady Macbeth was reading a letter from her husband that said everything that happened to him (1. 5. 1). However, as the end of the play is reached, Macbeth no longer speaks to his wife as much. This is shown in Act 5, Scene 3 when the play depicts Macbeth trying to comfort himself from fear by recalling his memory of the witches prophecies. In the beginning of the play, Macbeth would always talk to his wife if he needed moral support. However, that is no longer the case. In modern day 2013, a lot of the criminals, such as James Holmes from the Aurora shootings, Adam Lanza of the Sandy Hook shootings, and even recently the co-op of the two Chechnyans, did not talk to anyone or were isolated. Psychological experts have examined the lives of these people in depths greater than the ocean, and they have concluded that isolation leads to evil and wrongdoings. Macbeth was absolutely isolated near the end of the story, so that is proof that he has become more evil in character. Some critics of Shakespeares Macbeth would not agree with the theory that Macbeth is the most evil character in British literature. However, there is much evidence that proves that this is not the case. Some could claim that Macbeth was insane and did not mean to perform the actions that he did. However, he is not insane, and this is proven because all of his actions are very in touch with the world and can slightly be justified. If Macbeth were indeed insane, the play would show lots more rambunctious actions on his part and not a lot of thought going into everything he does, which he did do before all of his actions. Others might say that there were other characters in British literature that are more evil than Macbeth, but through the following reasons this is simply not true. He was very much tempted by the prophecies that the witches told and commits more and more evil acts such as multiple murders of different important characters. Also, the character is extremely thirsty for power and will stop at nothing to get it, which is an extremely evil trait. Through these reasons, it is clear that Macbeth is in fact the most evil character in British literature, and counter arguments are simply not truthful. Henceforth, Macbeth has transformed from a young king into a powerful, evil ruler. He no longer has anything getting in his way of becoming more and more evil, and not being as much of a gentleman. It is sad to say that lots of people in this world are like this, but lucky for us, we have the drama of Macbeth to show us what may happen to them in the end.

Prone to Clone essays

Prone to Clone essays The practice of human cloning is beneficial to society; therefore it must be legally endorsed. Since the cloning of Dolly, the sheep, the first mammal produced from an adult cell in 1997, the concept of attempting human cloning has become the subject of many debates. Parties in opposition to human cloning are simply frightened by the idea because it is a new and misunderstood science. A substantial benefit of human cloning is that with new technological knowledge, scientists are discovering means to generate entire separate organs and other tissues such as nerve and heart muscle cells without the creation of an entire person. At present, there is a great shortage of organs on hand for transplants, and persistent study in cloning of this nature may well eliminate this dilemma. According to an article in Scientific American: Once we are able to drive nerve cells from cloned embryos, we hope not only to heal damaged spinal cords but to treat brain disorders such as Parkinsons disease, in which the death of brain cells that make a substance called dopamine leads to uncontrollable tremors and paralysis. Alzheimers disease, stroke and epilepsy might also yield to such an approach. (Cibelli 3) An additional benefit of human cloning is that it can present couples that cannot reproduce with an opportunity to have children who are biologically related to them, whereas they otherwise could not. Current treatments for infertility are not very successful. Couples experience physically and emotionally painful procedures for a small chance of having children. Many couples are exhausted of their money and time without successfully having children. Reproduction through cloning is similar enough to other common reproductive techniques, such as in-vitro fertilization, that is should not be dealt with differently, and it must be presented as an option. Thomas H. Murray, Ph.D. at Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio say...

The Conjugations for Déranger (to Disturb) in French

The Conjugations for Dà ©ranger (to Disturb) in French Dà ©ranger  is the French verb that means to disturb. This ones easy to remember if you think of the English derange, which is a synonym of disturb in some circumstances. In order to change the verb meaning to disturbed or disturbing, a conjugation is required and a quick lesson will walk you through this. Conjugating the French Verb  Dà ©ranger Dà ©ranger  is a  spelling change verb  and it follows a pattern found in similar verbs that end in -ger. This includes  corriger  (to correct) and  bouger  (to move)  and theres a good reason behind the subtle changes. When the letter G is followed by a hard vowel like an A or O, it typically uses a hard G sound. However, in words like  dà ©ranger, we want to retain the soft G and that is why an I sometimes replaces the E in conjugations.   Using the table, study the verb endings attached to the stem  dà ©rang-. Match the subject pronoun to the present, future, or imperfect past tense to find the correct form to use. For instance, I disturb is je dà ©range and we will disturb is  nous avons dà ©rangerons. Subject Present Future Imperfect je drange drangerai drangeais tu dranges drangeras drangeais il drange drangera drangeait nous drangeons drangerons drangions vous drangez drangerez drangiez ils drangent drangeront drangeaient The Present Participle of  Dà ©ranger The  present participle  of  dà ©ranger  is  dà ©rangeant.  This is done by simply adding -ant  to the verb stem. Beyond its usage as a verb, this can also become an adjective, gerund, or noun in some instances. Another Common  Past Tense Form   The  passà © composà ©Ã‚  is a common way to say the past tense disturbed in French. To use it, conjugate the  auxiliary, or helping verb  avoir  to fit the subject pronoun, then attach the  past participle  dà ©rangà ©. As an example, I disturbed is jai dà ©rangà © and we disturbed is nous avons dà ©rangà ©. Notice how the  ai  and  avons  are conjugates of  avoir  and that the past participle does not change. More Simple  Dà ©ranger  Conjugations The subjunctive verb mood is used when the verb has a level of uncertainty. Similarly, the conditional verb mood implies that the action is dependent on something else. These two verb forms are quite useful, especially with a verb like  dà ©ranger  where the disturbance may be questionable. Used with less frequency, you will often only come across the passà © composà © and the imperfect subjunctive in formal writing. Subject Subjunctive Conditional Pass Simple Imperfect Subjunctive je drange drangerais drangeai drangeasse tu dranges drangerais drangeas drangeasses il drange drangerait drangeas dranget nous drangions drangerions drangemes drangeassions vous drangiez drangeriez drangetes drangeassiez ils drangent drangeraient drangrent drangeassent To express  dà ©ranger  in an exclamation, demand, or request, the imperative form is used. For this conjugation, the subject pronoun is not required, so tu dà ©range can be shortened to dà ©range. Imperative (tu) drange (nous) drangeons (vous) drangez

UK Central Government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

UK Central Government - Essay Example Most such departments are led by ministers and the ministers are accountable to parliament and have to report on the progress of their department. Certain non-ministerial posts may also be given to people heading certain departments1. This essay will deal with the role of the governments, both local and central and examine to what extent the local governments are dependent on central government. Is there an issue of performance scrutiny Are the local governments completely controlled by the central government2 These are issues that will be discussed is some detail. The ministers are in charge of government departments and are known as secretaries of state. They are members of the cabinet and carry out duties that the Prime Minster allots to them. Certain holders of traditional offices may have no departmental duties. Ministerial responsibility refers to both the collective responsibility for government policy and actions which ministers share, and to the ministers' individual responsibility for the work of their own departments. Collective responsibility implies that ministers should support government decisions and policies once they have been made and strictly implement those policies. Departmental ministers must agree with government policies as a whole so ministers are either expected to support or resign (Direct.gov on Central govt, 2005). This shows the extreme control of the central government in policy matters. In recent years we have seen such cases of resignation when ministers have failed to support government policies for instance the decision to go to war against Iraq (BBC report 2003/2005)3. The junior ministers are parliamentary undersecretaries of State and they report to a minister and oversee certain functions of a department. Departmental ministers tend to decide on all matters within their responsibility although certain cases may involve the decision of more than one department and consequently more than one minister would be responsible for the decision. On taking up office ministers are required to resign from directorships of private and public companies and ensure that there is no conflict in public and private interests (Direct.gov on Centr al govt, 2005). The central government consists of a cabinet of 20 ministers chosen by the Prime Minister and include both departmental and non-departmental ministers. The Cabinet represents the true collective responsibility and is expected to take the final decisions on government policies and adhere to them. The cabinet meets weekly although its business remains confidential until policies are made public and official (Direct.gov on Central govt, 2005). The civil service helps the government to formulate policies, carry out decisions and administer public services for which they are responsible. As ofJune 2001, civil servants constituted about 2 per cent of the working population in employment and about 10 per cent of all public sector employees and half of all civil services provide their services directly to the public4. The Prime Minister is responsible for central co-ordination and management of the Civil Service (Direct.gov on Central govt, 2005). The central government also consists of executive agencies that are directly accountable to the ministers. These government agencies

Internet Bullying and the Law Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Internet Bullying and the Law - Research Paper Example Cyber bullying needs to be restricted by legal rules and regulations because these laws will deter cyber bullying, these laws are in compliance with ethical standards and cyber bullying needs to be stopped because it is hurting the future of the society. One of the main reasons due to which cyber bullying should be recognized as an illegal act is that it will lead to deterring individuals from indulging in such behaviors. Strict cyber cullying laws are required in order punish those who have already committed the act and even those who are planning to indulge in the act. Individuals are rational beings and they make decisions on the basis of costs and benefits associated with a particular act. If an individual feels that the cost of committing a crime is lower than the benefits that can be derived from indulging in that particular act, they are more likely to indulge in the act. If strict laws restricting cyber bullying are put into action, individuals will take these laws and punishments associated with an act before committing the act and are more likely not to indulge in the act (Vito, 2012, p.52). Anti cyber bullying laws should be in place because these laws are completely ethical and in compliance with ethical standards. According to the ethical standard of utilitarianism, those actions should be considered as legal that result in higher number of benefits and lower number of costs as compared to any other action that may be taken in the same scenario. Anti-bullying laws have more benefits to offer to society as compared to costs. Cyber bullying has resulted in several negative consequences for the entire society. For example: a number of suicides have been reported to take place as a result of cyber bullying. The suicide of Megan Meier a 14year old girl has been attributed to cyber bullying as it was figured out that she was publically harassed by others over

Foils in Shakespeares Hamlet :: The Tragedy of Hamlet

Foils in Hamlet Hamlet by William Shakespeare is a well known play. Shakespeare uses foils in Hamlet to further create and explain Hamlet’s character. Foils are created in a play to help the audience better understand a major character by giving the character someone to talk to and compare the major character to. [Using the definition as the thesis was not a good idea in this paper. The assignment said not in the first paragraph, i.e., the paper was to be about how foils affect the meaning of this play.] Foils are minor characters created in a play to help the audience understand a major character better by giving the major character someone to talk to and compare them to. Ophelia can be considered a foil to Hamlet because she helps us see the different attitudes Hamlet has toward certain things. Hamlet, after finding out that his father was murdered, starts acting crazy and giving Ophelia mixed signals about his love for her. Ophelia believes Hamlet loves her but, because of her father’s wishes, constantly turns him down and denies that she feels the same way. Ophelia finally denounces denies that she loves him but Hamlet states that "I did love you once." He also stated that "You should not have believed me, for virtue cannot so inoculate our old stock but we shall relish of it. I loved you not." "Get thee to a nunnery." These lines from the play states [SV -1] that Hamlet was pretending to be delirious and pretending to love Ophelia because of what Claudius has done to his father. Not only does the scene, "Get thee to a nunnery," show how Hamlet feels about Ophelia, but it also shows how Hamlet feels about marriage and women. Hamlet tells Ophelia to go to the convent because she should not want to be a "breeder of sinners" and because there should be no more marriage. Hamlet does not want anymore marriage because that would mean more children and according to Hamlet the only children born to marriage are sinners. Ophelia is also considered a foil for Hamlet because of the difference in the way each grieved for their father’s deaths. The difference between the way Hamlet and Ophelia grieved is that Ophelia’s grief was actually for her father, whereas Hamlet’s grief was for his mother.

Pinnacle Manufacturing Part

Part I. c – Summary of Observations Including Assessment of Business Risk Based on the financial ratios calculated, it appears that Pinnacle Manufacturing (the â€Å"Company†) is both using up cash assets and increasing its debt. The Cash Ratio has declined each of the past three years indicating that the Company has a decreasing ability to pay its current liabilities from cash and will be required to liquidate assets to pay off current liabilities. The Current Ratio has also declined each of the last three years. In 2009, it was 218. % or 2. 186. This means that for every dollar of current liabilities the Company had $2. 18 in current assets with which to pay those liabilities. Inventory Turnover has declined from 4. 04 times per year in 2009 to 3. 78 times per year in 2011. This would seem to indicate that sales are slowing and inventory is not being sold as quickly as in prior years. This is further supported by the increasing Days to Sell Inventory number. In 2009 D ays to Sell Inventory was 90. 44 and had grown to 96. 48 days in 2011.This makes it important to assess inventory obsolescence in light of these numbers. Debt to Equity has increased significantly from 2009 to 2011. In 2009, the Debt to Equity Ratio was 70. 81%. In 2011, it had grown to 96. 48%. This might indicate that the Company does not have room to continue to borrow should it need cash to operate. If borrowing is not available as a financing tool, it is likely that the Company might need to look to its stockholders for additional cash or resort to more costly forms for financing. Gross Profit Margins have declined from 29. 1% in 2009 to 27. 5% in 2011. This ratio is helpful analytically to indicate that possible misstatements might exist in the areas of sales, COGS, A/R and inventory. As noted above there is already a negative trend in inventory for the Company. Similarly, Profit Margin for the Company has declined from 3. 77% to 2. 84% between 2009 and 2011. A decline in prof it margin can signal misstatements in various operating expense accounts and balance sheet items. It can also simply signal a declining business trend for the Company.Return on Assets shows the Company’s ability to generate a profit based on assets and equity. In 2009, the Company’s profit margin was 3. 07% and in 2011 it had fallen to 1. 91%. Overall, the Company appears to have slowing sales leading to growing inventory. The Company is increasing its debt burden to help cash flow since sales seem to be declining and inventory is growing. The profitability of the Company is declining steadily. Finally, if the Company finds itself in default of any loan covenants it will have to liquidate assets to pay its debts.Forced asset sales are never beneficial to the seller and would only exacerbate the already declining business trends of the Company. Part I. f – What Data is More Useful in Evaluating the Potential for Misrepresentations? We believe that each set of dat a has its strengths and weakness. The balance sheet data available for Pinnacle Manufacturing is extremely helpful in evaluating whether certain income statement items could be misstated. As an example, to know the trend in the asset Accounts Receivable: Trade made evaluating the income statement item Bad Debt expense easier.As a result, the financial data for the parent Pinnacle could be cross-referenced more easily. However, the subsidiary income statements allow greater detail into the business components that make up Pinnacle. A possible overstatement in one account for one of the subsidiaries could be cancelled out by a similar understatement in the in the same account for another subsidiary. When the numbers are rolled-up to the parent company, there might not be a noticeable problem in the account. As a result possible insufficient planning would result.With the subsidiary information, an audit of each corresponding account could result in a more accurate number for the paren t company. This would appear to help acceptable audit risk for the audit firm. ? Part I. g – Observations based on Accounts Receivable, Inventory and Short/Current Long-term Debt Accounts Receivable: Trade has grown in absolute dollar amount from just under $9. 6 Million in 2010 to over $14 Million in 2011. As a result, we believe it is important to look at the reasonableness of the allowance for bad debts and bad debt expense.Confirmation of balances with customers will help to uncover any discrepancies between Pinnacle and its customers about amounts owed and paid. This could impact the internal control over posting of payments at Pinnacle and whether the money is being diverted through fraud. Inventory has grown from slightly over $25 Million at year-end in both 2009 and 2010 to more than $32 Million in 2011. Growing inventory could be indicative of inventory obsolescence. Obsolete inventory would be subject to a write-down in value. We would want to explore these areas.We have identified Inventory as an area of possible misstatement for Pinnacle. Short/Current Long-term debt has increased from 2009 and 2010 levels in 2011. In 2009 and 2010, the short/current portion of long-term debt was only $41,070. In 2011 it had increased to almost $4 Million. We are concerned that a misstatement has occurred. If the amount is correct, we would want to ascertain why the sudden increase. If it is due to a scheduled one-time balloon payment being due it is less of a concern than if a loan has been accelerated due to default or failure to meet certain loan covenants.The long-term solvency of Pinnacle depends on the success of its operations to raise capital for future growth and expansion as well as its ability to make payments on its debts. If Pinnacle is in default and a loan has been called or accelerated it would negatively impact the Company’s ability to borrow in the future. ? Part I. h – Going Concern Issue We assess the likelihood that Pinnacl e is likely to fail financially in the next twelve months as low. While many of the items discussed indicate that Pinnacle has some financial problems, its current ratio is still well over 1.It might be holding some obsolete inventory but even obsolete inventory has some value to generate cash. In twelve months, if the Company does not resolve its growing inventory issues and possibly rework some of its debt deals, the decision might be different. Currently, sales are growing as is Income from operations and net income. The Company has a positive cash flow which buys it time to try to fix its underlying problems. Inattention to these details could cause us to revisit this question next year with a more dire answer.

Wireless technology - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 21 Words: 6257 Downloads: 2 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Introduction Handheld wireless radios such as this Maritime VHF radio transceiver use electromagnetic waves to implement a form of wireless communications technology. Wireless operations permits services, such as long range communications, that are impossible or impractical to implement with the use of wires. The term is commonly used in the telecommunications industry to refer to telecommunications systems (e.g. radio transmitters and receivers, remote controls, computer networks, network terminals, etc.) which use some form of energy (e.g. radio frequency (RF), infrared light, laser light, visible light, acoustic energy, etc.) to transfer information without the use of wires. Information is transferred in this manner over both short and long distances. Wireless technologies have become increasingly popular in our everyday business and personal lives. Cell phones offer users a freedom of movement unbelievable just over 10 years ago. Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) allow individuals to access calendars, e-mail, address and phone numbers lists, and the Internet. Global positioning system (GPS) that the location of the device anywhere in the world . Wireless technologies promise to offer even more features and functions in the next few years. An increasing number of government agencies, business, and home users are using wireless technologies in their environments. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Wireless technology" essay for you Create order Overview of Wireless Technology Wireless technologies are enabling one or more devices to communicate without physical connections à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" without requiring network cabling. Wireless technology aims to provide users access to information anywhere à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" it allows mobility. Wireless technologies use radio transmissions for transmitting data, whereas wired technologies use cables. Wireless technologies range from complex systems, such as: * WLANs * Cell phones Simple device such as * Wireless headphone * Microphones Infrared devices such as * Remote Controls * Cordless computer keyboards * Mice In this article, a brief overview of critical elements of wireless is presented: wireless networks, wireless devices, wireless standards, Wireless Networks Wireless networks are categorized into three groups based on their coverage range: * WWAN * WLAN * WPAN ÃÆ'ËÅ" WWAN: WWAN representing wireless wide area networks includes wide coverage area technologies such as 2G cellular, Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD). Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) ÃÆ'ËÅ" WLAN: WLAN representing wireless local area networks, WLAN connect computers and other components to the network using an access point device. It communicates with devices with wireless network adaptors. Its coverage areas of 300 feet access point cells linked together within a building or between buildings ÃÆ'ËÅ" WPAN: WPAN representing wireless personal area network technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared. All of these technologies are join less à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å"receive and transmit information using electromagnetic (EM) waves. Wireless technologies use wavelengths ranging from the radio frequency (RF) The frequencies in the RF band cover a significant portion of the EM radiation spectrum, extending from 9 kilohertz (kHz), the lowest allocated wireless communications frequency, to thousands of gigahertz (GHz). Wireless Devices A wide range of devices use wireless technologies, with handheld devices being the most widespread form today. The most commonly used wireless handheld devices such as * Text messaging * PDA * Smart phone Personal Digital Assistants PDAs are data organizers that are small enough to fit into a shirt pocket or a purse. PDAs offer applications  · Office productivity * Database application * Address book, scheduler user allows synchronizing data between PDAs and personal computer. Smart Phones Mobile wireless telephones or cell phones have shortwave analog or digital transmission that allows users to establish wireless connections to nearby transmitters. As with WLANs, the transmitters span of coverage is called a cell. As the cell phone user moves from one cell to the next, the telephone connection is effectively passed from one local cell transmitter to the next. Todays cell phone is rapidly evolving to include integration with PDAs, thus providing users with increased wireless e-mail and Internet access. Mobile phones with information processing and data networking capabilities are called Smart Phones. Text-Messaging Devices Security administrators may also encounter one-way and two-way text messaging devices. These devices operate on a proprietary networking standard that disseminates e-mail to remote devices by accessing the corporate network. Text-messaging technology is designed to monitor a users inbox for new e-mail and relay the mail to the users wireless handheld via the Internet and wireless network. Wireless Standards Wireless encompasses a variety of standards. The principal advantages of standards are to encourage mass production and to allow products from multiple vendors to communicate. * AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Systems) * FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) * TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) * CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) * GSM (Global System for Mobile) Many handheld devices (e.g., PDAs and cell phones) have followed the Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) standard, which provides for secure access to e-mail and the Internet. IEEE 802.11 Standards The following IEEE standards and task groups exist within the IEEE 802.11 working group:  · IEEE 802.11 The original 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz RF and IR standard (1999) * IEEE 802.11a 54 Mbit/s, 5 GHzstandard (1999, shipping products in 2001) * IEEE 802.11b Enhancements to 802.11 to support 5.5 and 11 Mbit/s (1999) * IEEE 802.11c Bridge operation procedures; included in the IEEE 802.1D standard (2001) * IEEE 802.11d International (country-to -country) roaming extensions (2001) * IEEE 802.11e Enhancements: QoS, including packet bursting (2005) * IEEE 802.11F Inter-Access Point Protocol (2003) * IEEE 802.11g 54 Mbit/s, 2.4 GHz standard (backwards compatible with b) (2003) * IEEE 802.11i-Enhanced security (2004) * IEEE 802.11j Extensions for Japan (2004) * IEEE 802.11k Radio resource measurement enhancements * IEEE 8 0 2 .11l (reserved, typologically unsound) IEEE 802.11e Enhancements: * IEEE 802.11m Maintenance of the standard; odds and ends. * IEEE 802.11n Higher throughput improvements * IEEE 802.11o ( reserved, typologically unsound) * IEEE 802.11p WAVE Wireless Access for the Vehicular Environment. * IEEE 802.11r Fast roaming * IEEE 802.11s-ESS Mesh Networking * IEEE 802.11T Wireless Performance Prediction (WPP) test methods and metrics * IEEE 802.11u Interworking with non-802 networks (e.g., cellular) * IEEE 802.11v Wireless network management Photo phone The Photophone was invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and his assistant Charles Sumner Tainter on February 19, 1880. Bell believed the photophone was his most important invention. The device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light. On June 3, 1880, Bell transmitted the worlds first wireless telephone message on his newly invented form of telecommunication, the far advanced precursor to fiber-optic communications. Of the eighteen patents granted in Bells name alone, and the twelve he shared with his collaborators, four were for the photo phone, which Bell referred to as his greatest achievement, writing that the photo phone was the greatest invention ever made, greater than the telephone. The master patent for the photo phone, was issued in December 1880, many decades before its principles could be applied to practical applications. Design and history The photo phone used crystalline selenium cells at the electricity. Worlds first wireless telephone communication June 1880 In their ÃŽÂ ©. It was the earliest fiber-optics system recorded. Radio The term wireless came into public use to refer to a radio receiver or Nobel Prize for Physics for their contribution to wireless telegraphy. 21st century development Internet radio Internet connections: no radio transmitters need be involved at any point in the process. Digital audio broadcasting Digital audio broadcasting (DAB): appears to be set to grow in importance relative to FM radio for airborne broadcasts in several countries. The electromagnetic spectrum Light, colors, AM and FM radio and electronic devices make use of the electromagnetic spectrum. In the US the frequencies that are available for use for communication are treated as a public resource and are regulated by the airplane. Wireless communication spans the spectrum from 9kHz to 300GHz. Security systems Wireless technology may supplement or replace hard wired implementations in security systems for homes or office buildings. Cellular telephony (phones and modems) A mobile phone or mobile (cellphone and headphone) is an GPS. The bottom of the economic pyramid. History of mobile phones Radio telephony (0G) In 1908, George Sweigert of Euclid, Ohio on June 10, 1969. In 1945, the zero generation (0G) of mobile telephones was introduced. Like other technologies of the time, it involved a single, powerful base station covering a wide area, and each telephone would effectively monopolize a channel over that whole area while in use. Analog cellular telephony (1G) The first commercial citywide cellular network was launched in Japan by NTT in 1979. Fully automatic cellular networks were first introduced in the early to mid-1980s (the FCC in the United States. The cell sites would be set up such that cells partially overlapped. In a cellular system, a signal between a base station and a terminal only need be strong enough to reach between the two, so the same channel can be used simultaneously for separate conversations in different cells. Cellular systems required several leaps of technology, including handover, which allowed a conversation to continue as a mobile phone traveled from cell to cell. This system included variable transmission power in both the base stations and the telephones, which allowed range and cell size to vary. As the system expanded and neared capacity, the ability to reduce transmission power allowed new cells to be added, resulting in more, smaller cells and thus more capacity. The evidence of this growth can still be seen in the many older, tall cell site towers with no antennae on the upper parts of their towers. These sites originally created large cells, and so had their antennae mounted atop high towers; the towers were designed so that as the system expandedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ and cell sizes shrankà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ the antennae could be lowered on their original masts to reduce range. Digital mobile communication (2G) The first modern network technology on digital Telecom Finland who ran a 1G NMT network. The first data services appeared on mobile phones starting with person-to-person SMS text messaging in Finland in 1993. First trial payments using a mobile phone to pay for a Coca Cola vending machine were set in Finland in 1998. The first commercial payments were mobile parking trialled in Sweden but first commercially launched in Norway in 1999. The first commercial payment system to mimic banks and credit cards was launched in the Philippines in 1999 simultaneously by mobile operators Globe and Smart. The first content sold to mobile phones was the ringing tone, first launched in 1998 in Finland. The first full internet service on mobile phones was i-Mode introduced by NTT DoCoMo in Japan in 1999. Wideband mobile communication (3G) In 2001 the first commercial launch of WCDMA standard. Until the early 1990s, following introduction of the miniaturization of digital components and the development of more sophisticated batteries, mobile phones have become smaller and lighter. Uses Mobile phones are used for a variety of purposes, including keeping in touch with family members, conducting business, and having access to a telephone in the event of an emergency. Some individuals keep multiple cell phones in some cases for legitimate reasons such as having one phone for business and another for personal use, though a second cell phone may also be used to covertly conduct an affair or illicit business transaction. Child predators are able to take advantage of cell phones to secretly communicate with children without the knowledge of their parents or teachers, which has raised concerns. Organizations that aid victims of domestic violence offer a secret cell phone to potential victims. These devices are often old phones that are donated and refurbished to meet the victims emergency needs. The victim can then have the phone handy when necessary and without the abuser knowing. A study by Motorola found that one in ten cell phone subscribers have a second phone that often is kept secret from other family members. These phones are used to engage in activities including extramarital affairs or clandestine business dealings. Handsets There are several categories of mobile phones, from basic phones to feature phones such as music phones and camera phones. There are also smartphones; the first smartphone was the iPhone. Smartphone Mobile phones often have features beyond sending touchscreen. SIM card Typical mobile phone SIM card In addition to the battery, postage stamp, the SIM Card is usually placed underneath the battery in the rear of the unit, and stores the phones configuration data, and information about the phone itself, such as which calling plan the subscriber is using. When the subscriber removes the SIM Card, it can be re-inserted into another phone that is configured to accept the SIM card and used as normal. Each SIM Card is activated by use of a unique numerical identifier; once activated, the identifier is locked down and the card is permanently locked in to the activating network. For this reason, most retailers refuse to accept the return of an activated SIM Card. Those cell phones that do not use a SIM Card have the data programmed in to their memory. This data is accessed by using a special digit sequence to access the NAM as in Name or number programming menu. From here, one can add information such as a new number for your phone, new Service Provider numbers, new emergency numbers, change their Authentication Key or A-Key code, and update their Preferred Roaming List or PRL. However, to prevent someone from accidentally disabling their phone or removing it from the network, the Service Provider puts a lock on this data called a Master Subsidiary Lock or MSL. The MSL applies to the SIM only so once the contract has been completed the MSL still applies to the SIM. The phone however, is also initially locked by the manufacturer into the Service Providers MSL. This lock may be disabled so that the phone can use other Service Providers SIM cards. Most phones purchased outside the US are unlocked phones because there are numerous Service Providers in close proximity to one another or have overlapping coverage. The cost to unlock a phone varies but is usually very cheap and is sometimes provided by independent phone vendors. Media The mobile phone became a mass media channel in 1998 when the first ringtones were sold to mobile phones by Radiolinja in Finland. Soon other media content appeared such as news, videogames, jokes, horoscopes, TV content and advertising. In 2006 the total value of mobile phone paid media content exceeded internet paid media content and was worth 31 Billion dollars. The value of music on phones was worth 9.3 Billion dollars in 2007 and gaming was worth over 5 billion dollars in 2007. The mobile phone is often called the Fourth Screen or Third Screen .It is also called the Seventh of the Mass Media. Most early content for mobile tended to be copies of legacy media, such as the banner advertisement or the TV news highlight video clip. Recently unique content for mobile has been emerging, from the ringing tones and ring back tones in music to mobisodes, video content that has been produced exclusively for mobile phones. The advent of media on the mobile phone has also produced the opportunity to identify and track Alpha Users or Hubs, the most influential members of any social community. AMF Ventures measured in 2007 the relative accuracy of three mass media, and found that audience measures on mobile were nine times more accurate than on the internet and 90 times more accurate than on TV. Comparison to similar systems Car phone A type of telephone permanently mounted in a vehicle, these often have more powerful transmitters, an external antenna and loudspeaker for hands free use. They usually connect to the same networks as regular mobile phones. Cordless telephone (portable phone) Cordless phones are telephones which use one or more radio handsets in place of a wired handset. The handsets connect wirelessly to a base station, which in turn connects to a conventional land line for calling. Unlike mobile phones, cordless phones use private base stations, and which are not shared. Professional Mobile Radio Advanced professional mobile radio systems can be very similar to mobile phone systems. Notably, the TETRA, the European digital PMR standard, to implement public mobile networks. Radio phone This is a term which covers radios which could connect into the telephone network. These phones may not be mobile; for example, they may require a PSTN phone call. Satellite phone This type of phone communicates directly with an artificial satellite, which in turn relays calls to a base station or another satellite phone. A single satellite can provide coverage to a much greater area than terrestrial base stations. Since satellite phones are costly, their use is typically limited to people in remote areas where no mobile phone coverage exists, such as mountain climbers, mariners in the open sea, and news reporters at disaster sites. IP Phone This type of phone delivers calls over GSM networks. Several vendors have developed standalone Wi-Fi phones. Additionally, some cellular mobile phones include the ability to place VoIP calls over cellular high speed data networks and/or wireless internet. Effect on Health Mobile phone radiation and health Because mobile phones emit precautionary principle be observed, recommending that use and proximity to the head be minimized, especially by children. People specifically fear the consequences that electromagnetic radiation might have on children. In order to avoid harm, a variety of initiatives have been created. For example, one initiative states that Mobile towers be located further away from child-care centers or schools where there are larger concentrations of children. Restriction on usage Schools Some schools limit or restrict the use of mobile phones. Schools set restrictions on the use of mobile phones because of the use of cell phones for cheating on tests, harassing other people, causing threats to the schools security, and facilitating gossip and other social activity in school. Many mobile phones are banned in school locker room facilities, public restrooms and swimming baths. Production Many mobile phones, along with other electronic products, have high quality turn a blind eye to its original source or do not adequately trace the source. Wi-Fi Wi-Fi (pronounced IEEE 802.11 standards. Because of the close relationship with its underlying standard, the term Wi-Fi is often used as a synonym for IEEE 802.11 technology. The Wi-Fi Alliance is a global, non-profit association of companies that promotes WLAN technology and certifies products if they conform to certain standards of interoperability. Not every IEEE 802.11-compliant device is submitted for certification to the Wi-Fi Alliance, sometimes because of costs associated with the certification process and the lack of the Wi-Fi logo does not imply a device is incompatible with Wi-Fi devices. Today, an IEEE 802.11 device is installed in many laptop or palm-sized computers. Uses Internet access A roof mounted Wi-Fi antenna A Wi-Fi enabled device such as a wireless mesh networks, for example, in London. garden sheds. City-wide Wi-Fi A municipal wireless antenna in Minneapolis In the early 2000s, many cities around the world announced plans for a city wide Wi-Fi network. This proved to be much more difficult than their promoters initially envisioned with the result that most of these projects were either canceled or placed on indefinite hold. A few were successful, for example in 2005, United States to offer city wide free Wi-Fi.Few of the Municipal Wi-Fi firms have now entered into the field of Smart grid networks. Campus-wide Wi-Fi The first Wi-Fi network in the world was actually a campus based network. Carnegie Mellon University went live with the first-ever Wi-Fi network in 1994. Direct computer-to-computer communications Wi-Fi also allows communications directly from one computer to another without the involvement of an access point. This is called the ad-hoc mode of Wi-Fi transmission. This personal computers. However the Wi-Fi Alliance is hoping to promoting this method for quick file transfers and media sharing through a new discovery and easy security setup which they are calling Wi-Fi Direct. Wi-Fi certification Wi-Fi Alliance Wi-Fi technology is based on IEEE 802.11 standards. The backward compatibility, and to promote wireless local area network technology. Today the Wi-Fi Alliance consists of more than 300 companies from around the world. Manufacturers with membership in the Wi-Fi Alliance, whose products pass the certification process, are permitted to mark those products with the Wi-Fi logo. Specifically, the certification process requires conformance to the IEEE 802.11 radio standards, the EAP authentication standard. Certification may optionally include tests of IEEE 802.11 draft standards, interaction with cellular phone technology in converged devices, and features relating to security set-up, multimedia, and power saving. The Wi-Fi name The term Wi-Fi suggests Wireless Fidelity, compared with the long-established audio recording term High Fidelity or Hi-Fi. Wireless Fidelity has often been used in an informal way, even by the Wi-Fi Alliance itself, but officially the term Wi-Fi does not mean anything. The Wi-Fi Alliance initially stated that Wi-Fi actually stood for Wireless Fidelity, as with the White papers still held on their website say: a promising market for wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) network equipment. The Alliance has since downplayed the connection to Hi-Fi. Their official position now is that it is merely a brand name that stands for nothing in particular, and they now discourage the use of the term Wireless Fidelity. Advantages and challenges A keychain size Wi-Fi detector. Operational advantages Wi-Fi allows local area networks (LANs) to be deployed without wires for client devices, typically reducing the costs of network deployment and expansion. Spaces where cables cannot be run, such as outdoor areas and historical buildings, can host wireless LANs. Wireless network adapters are now built into most laptops. The price of chipsets for Wi-Fi continues to drop, making it an economical networking option included in even more devices. Wi-Fi has become widespread in corporate infrastructures. Different competitive brands of access points and client network interfaces are inter-operable at a basic level of service. Products designated as Wi-Fi Certified by the Wi-Fi Alliance are backwards compatible. Wi-Fi is a global set of standards. Unlike mobile phones, any standard Wi-Fi device will work anywhere in the world. Wi-Fi is widely available in more than 220,000 public hotspots and tens of millions of homes and corporate and university campuses worldwide. The current version of passphrase is used. New protocols for Quality of Servicemake Wi-Fi more suitable for latency-sensitive applications, and powers saving mechanism improve battery operation. Limitations Spectrum assignments and operational limitations are not consistent worldwide. Most of Europe allows for an additional 2 channels beyond those permitted in the U.S. for the 2.4 GHz band. Japan has one more on top of that. Europe, as of 2007, was essentially homogeneous in this respect. A very confusing aspect is the fact that a Wi-Fi signal actually occupies five channels in the 2.4 GHz band resulting in only three non-overlapped channels in the U.S.: 1, 6, 11, and three or four in Europe: 1, 5, 9, 13 can be used if all the equipment on a specific area can be guaranteed not to use 802.11b at all, even as fallback or beacon. dBm. Hardware Standard devices An Czech Republic. OSBRiDGE 3GN 802.11n Access Point and UMTS/GSM Gateway in one device. USB wireless adapter A data between connected wireless devices in addition to a (usually) single connected wired device, most often an Ethernet hub or switch, allowing wireless devices to communicate with other wired devices. USB, Express Card, Card bus and PC Card. Most new laptop computers are equipped with internal adapters. Internal cards are generally more difficult to install. Wireless AirPort. Wireless data-link layer. Two wireless bridges may be used to connect two wired networks over a wireless link, useful in situations where a wired connection may be unavailable, such as between two separate homes. Wireless range extenders or wireless repeaters can extend the range of an existing wireless network. Range extenders can be strategically placed to elongate a signal area or allow for the signal area to reach around barriers such as those created in L-shaped corridors. Wireless devices connected through repeaters will suffer from an increased latency for each hop. Additionally, a wireless device connected to any of the repeaters in the chain will have a throughput that is limited by the weakest link between the two nodes in the chain from which the connection originates to where the connection ends. Distance records Distance records (using non-standard devices) include 382km (237 mi) in June 2007, held by Ermanno Pietrosemoli and EsLaRed of Venezuela, transferring about 3 MB of data between mountain tops of El Aguila and Platillon. The Swedish Space Agencytransferred data 310km, using 6 watt amplifiers to reach an overhead stratospheric balloon. Embedded systems Embedded serial-to-Wi-Fi module Wi-Fi availability in the home is on the increase.This extension of the Internet into the home space will increasingly be used for remote monitoring. Examples of remote monitoring include security systems and tele-medicine. In all these kinds of implementation, if the Wi-Fi provision is provided using a system running one of operating systems mentioned above, then it becomes unfeasible due to weight, power consumption and cost issues. Increasingly in the last few years, embedded Wi-Fi modules have become available which come with a real-time operating system and provide a simple means of wireless enabling any device which has and communicates via a serial port. This allows simple monitoring devices à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" for example, a portable ECG monitor hooked up to a patient in their home à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å" to be created. This Wi-Fi enabled device effectively becomes part of the Internet cloud and can communicate with any other node on the Internet. The data collected can hop via the homes Wi-Fi access point to anywhere on the Internet. These Wi-Fi modules are designed so that designers need minimal Wi-Fi knowledge to wireless-enable their products. Network security The main issue with wireless network security is its simplified access to the network compared to traditional wired networks such as firewall. Most business networks protect sensitive data and systems by attempting to disallow external access. Thus being able to get wireless reception provides an attack vector, if encryption is not used or can be defeated. Attackers who have gained access to a Wi-Fi network can use DNS spoofing attacks very effectively against any other user of the network, because they can see the DNS requests made, and often respond with a spoofed answer before the queried DNS server has a chance to reply. Securing methods A common but unproductive measure to deter unauthorized users is to suppress the APs spoofing an authorized address. Kleins attack to crack a WEP key with a 50% success rate using only 40,000 packets. Wireless energy transfer An artists depiction of a solar satellite, which could send energy wirelessly to a space vessel or planetary surface. Wireless energy transfer or wireless power transmission is the process that takes place in any system where wires. Wireless transmission is useful in cases where instantaneous or continuous energy transfer is needed, but interconnecting wires are inconvenient, hazardous, or impossible. Wireless energy transfer is different from wireless transmission for the purpose of telecommunications, such as power received, becomes critical if it is too low to recover the signal successfully. With wireless energy transfer efficiency is the more important parameter. The most common form of wireless power is carried out using lasers. Microwave Microwave power transmission The earliest work in the area of wireless transmission via radio waveswas performed by Nikola Tesla also investigated radio transmission and reception. Japanese researcher Yagi antenna. While it did not prove to be particularly useful for power transmission, this beam antenna has been widely adopted throughout the broadcasting and wireless telecommunications industries due to its excellent performance characteristics. Power transmission via radio waves can be made more directional, allowing longer distance power beaming, with shorter wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the beaming of power to spacecraft leaving orbit has been considered. Power beaming by microwaves has the difficulty that for most space applications the required aperture sizes are very large due to Thinned array curse, it is not possible to make a narrower beam by combining the beams of several smaller satellites. For earthbound applications a large area 10km diameter receiving array allows large total power levels to be used while operating at the low power density suggested for human electromagnetic exposure safety. A human safe power density of 1mW/cm2 distributed across a 10km diameter area corresponds to 750 megawatts total power level. This is the power level found in many modern electric power plants. Laser With a laser beam centered on its panel of photovoltaic cells, a lightweight model plane makes the first flight of an aircraft powered by a laser beam inside a building at NASA Marshall Space Flight Center. In the case of electromagnetic radiation closer to visible region of spectrumcan be transmitted by converting electricity into a solar cell receiver. This mechanism is generally known as Power Beaming because the Power is beamed at a receiver that can convert it to usable electrical energy. Bluetooth The Bluetooth standard describes how mobile phones, computers, and PDAs should interconnect with each other, with home and business phones, and with computers using short range wireless connections. Bluetooth network applications include wireless synchronization, e-mail/Internet/intranet access using local personal computer connections, hidden computing through automated applications and networking, and applications that can be used for such devices as hands-free headsets and car kits. The Bluetooth standard specifies wireless operation in the 2.45 Gigahertz (GHz) radio band and supports data rates up to 720kbps. Bluetooth is an open wireless protocol for exchanging data over short distances (using short radio waves) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks (PANs). It was originally conceived as a wireless alternative to RS-232 data cables. It can connect several devices, overcoming problems of synchronization. Implementation Bluetooth uses a radio technology called frequency-hopping spread spectrum, which chops up the data being sent and transmits chunks of it on up to 79 frequencies. In its basic mode, the modulation is Gaussian frequency-shift keying (GFSK). It can achieve a gross data rate of 1 Mb/s. Bluetooth provides a way to connect and exchange information between devices such as mobile phones, telephones, laptops, personal computers, printers, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers, digital cameras, and video game consoles through a secure, globally unlicensed Industrial, Scientific and Medical (ISM) 2.4 GHz short-range radio frequency bandwidth. The Bluetooth specifications are developed and licensed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG). The Bluetooth SIG consists of companies in the areas of telecommunication, computing, networking, and consumer electronics. Uses Bluetooth is a standard and a communications protocol primarily designed for low power consumption, with a short range based on low-cost transceiver microchips in each device. Bluetooth makes it possible for these devices to communicate with each other when they are in range. Because the devices use a radio communications system, they do not have to be in line of sight of each other. In most cases the effective range of class 2 devices is extended if they connect to a class 1 transceiver, compared to a pure class 2 network. This is accomplished by the higher sensitivity and transmission power of Class 1 devices. List of applications A typical Bluetooth mobile phone headset. More prevalent applications of Bluetooth include: * Wireless control of and communication between a mobile phone and a hands-free headset. This was one of the earliest applications to become popular. * Wireless networking between PCs in a confined space and where little bandwidth is required. * Wireless communication with PC input and output devices, the most common being the printer. * Transfer of files, contact details, calendar appointments, and reminders between devices with OBEX. * Replacement of traditional wired GPS receivers, medical equipment, bar code scanners, and traffic control devices. * For controls where infrared was traditionally used. * For low bandwidth applications where higher [USB] bandwidth is not required and cable-free connection desired. * Sending small advertisements from Bluetooth-enabled advertising hoardings to other, discoverable, Bluetooth devices. * Wireless bridge between two Industrial Ethernet networks. * Two seventh-generation PlayStation 3, use Bluetooth for their respective wireless controllers. * Dial-up internet access on personal computers or PDAs using a data-capable mobile phone as a wireless modem like Novatel Mifi. Bluetooth vs. Wi-Fi IEEE 802.11 in networking Bluetooth and Wi-Fi have many applications in todays offices, homes, and on the move: setting up networks, printing, or transferring presentations and files from PDAs to computers. Both are versions of unlicensed wireless technology. local area network access in work areas. Bluetooth devices A Bluetooth USB dongle with a 100m range. Bluetooth exists in many products, such as telephones, the citation needed], modems and headsets. The technology is useful when transferring information between two or more devices that are near each other in low-bandwidth situations. Bluetooth is commonly used to transfer sound data with telephones or byte data with hand-held computers. Bluetooth protocols simplify the discovery and setup of services between devices. Bluetooth devices can advertise all of the services they provide. This makes using services easier because more of the security, network address and permission configuration can be automated than with many other network types. Mobile phone requirements A mobile phone that is Bluetooth enabled is able to pair with many devices. To ensure the broadest support of feature functionality together with legacy device support, the Open Mobile Terminal Platform (OMTP) forum has recently published a recommendations paper, entitled Bluetooth Local Connectivity; see external links below to download this paper. Series of Bluetooth Bluetooth 1.0 and 1.0B Versions 1.0 and 1.0B had many problems, and manufacturers had difficulty making their products interoperable. Versions 1.0 and 1.0B also included mandatory Bluetooth hardware device address transmission in the Connecting process (rendering anonymity impossible at the protocol level), which was a major setback for certain services planned for use in Bluetooth environments. Bluetooth 1.1 * Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2002. * Many errors found in the 1.0B specifications were fixed. * Added support for non-encrypted channels. * Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI). Bluetooth 1.2 This version is backward compatible with 1.1 and the major enhancements include the following: * Faster Connection and Discovery * Adaptive radio frequency interference by avoiding the use of crowded frequencies in the hopping sequence. * Higher transmission speeds in practice, up to 721 Kbit/s, than in 1.1. * Extended Synchronous Connections (eSCO), which improve voice quality of audio links by allowing retransmissions of corrupted packets, and may optionally increase audio latency to provide better support for concurrent data transfer. * UART. * Ratified as IEEE Standard 802.15.1-2005. * Introduced Flow Control and Retransmission Modes for L2CAP. Bluetooth 2.0 This version of the Bluetooth specification was released on November 10, 2004. It is backward compatible with the previous version 1.2. The main difference is the introduction of an Enhanced Data Rate (EDR) for faster data transfer. The nominal rate of EDR is about 3 megabits per second, although the practical data transfer rate is 2.1 megabits per second.According to the 2.0 specification, EDR provides the following benefits: * Three times the transmission speed (2.1Mbit/s) in some cases. * Reduced complexity of multiple simultaneous connections due to additional bandwidth. * Lower power consumption through a reduced duty cycle. Bluetooth 2.1 Bluetooth Core Specification Version 2.1 is fully backward compatible with 1.2, and was adopted by the Bluetooth SIG on July 26, 2007.[12] It supports theoretical data transfer speeds of up to 3 Mb/s. This specification includes the following features: Bluetooth 3.0 The 3.0 specification was adopted by the UWB, but UWB is missing from the specification. Telephone control protocol Telephony control protocol-binary is the bit-oriented protocol that defines the call control signaling for the establishment of voice and data calls between Bluetooth devices. Additionally, TCS BIN defines mobility management procedures for handling groups of Bluetooth TCS devices. TCS-BIN is only used by the cordless telephony profile, which failed to attract implementers. As such it is only of historical interest. Adopted protocols Adopted protocols are defined by other standards-making organizations and incorporated into Bluetooths protocol stack, allowing Bluetooth to create protocols only when necessary. The adopted protocols include: Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) Internet standard protocol for transporting IP datagrams over a point-to-point link TCP/IP/UDP Object Exchange Protocol (OBEX) Session-layer protocol for the exchange of objects, providing a model for object and operation representation Wireless Application Environment/Wireless Application Protocol (WAE/WAP) WAE specifies an application framework for wireless devices and WAP is an open standard to provide mobile users access to telephony and information services. Bluetooth Security Bluetooth implements E0 stream cipher is used for encrypting packets, granting confidentiality and is based on a shared cryptographic secret, namely a previously generated link key or master key. Those keys, used for subsequent encryption of data sent via the air interface, rely on the Bluetooth PIN, which has been entered into one or both devices. In September 2008, the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) published a Guide to Bluetooth Security that will serve as reference to organization on the security capabilities of Bluetooth and steps for securing Bluetooth technologies effectively. While Bluetooth has its benefits, it is susceptible to denial of service attacks, eavesdropping, man-in-the-middle attacks, message modification, and resource misappropriation. Users/organizations must evaluate their acceptable level of risk and incorporate security into the lifecycle of Bluetooth devices. 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